A Comprehensive Introduction to Confucianism
What is Confucianism? What are its core elements? Who are its representatives, and how did it develop? All these questions can be answered on this page.
Confucianism is one of the doctrines of the hundred schools of thought of the pre-Qin dynasties. With the characteristics of openness, tolerance, and pragmatism, it is a system of thought created by Confucius based on the summary of the traditional cultures of the Xia (夏朝), Shang (商朝), and Zhou dynasties.
As an integral part of traditional Chinese culture, Confucianism has exerted a profound influence on the Chinese people’s values, morals, and social outlook. The core values it emphasizes, such as Ren (仁), Yi (义), Li (礼), Zhi (智), and Xin (信), have significantly affected Chinese society and have gradually become important guidelines for people’s daily behavior and lives.
Confucianism is still very important in today’s society. It has exerted great effects on the social development of China as well as the development of world culture.
The Background of the Formation of Confucianism
During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods, Chinese society underwent an unprecedented transformation, the slavery system was disintegrating and a new landowning class was growing. The mobility of social classes led to the rapid rise of the “scholar” class. The turbulent social conditions led to an explosion of ideas, resulting in the phenomenon of the “contention of a hundred schools of thought” (百家争鸣).
At the same time, with the decline of the Zhou dynasty, the civilization of ritual and music, which had worked to consolidate the hierarchy during the Western Zhou period, also declined. Pre-Qin Confucianism was born at the end of the Spring and Autumn period when a hundred schools of thought contended. Confucianism hoped to rebuild a civilized society of rituals and music based on moral cultivation.
Subsequently, this system of thought became deeply embedded in Chinese culture, shaping perceptions of responsibility, moderation, and notions of loyalty and filial piety.
This is how later generations assessed Confucianism: “Confucianism represents the national spirit of the Chinese nation and is the main symbol of the cultural identity of the Chinese nation.”
What is Confucianism?
Confucianism is an important element or even the mainstream of China’s “national education”. It is a philosophical system of thought that originated in China, with its main contents related to human ethics and morality, political governance, and cultural inheritance, which deeply penetrates and influences the practical life of the Chinese people.
Its core concepts include Ren, Yi, Li, Zhi, Xin, Yong (勇), Shu (恕), Cheng (诚), Zhong (忠), Xiao (孝), and Ti (悌)benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, integrity, courage, forgiveness, sincerity, loyalty, filial piety, and fraternal duty. These concepts have played an important role in shaping the values and behavior of the Chinese people throughout their long history.
It is worth noting that Ren and Li are the most important concepts in Confucianism, and they run through the whole of Confucianism, complementing each other. Ren represents the internal moral standards, while Li are the externalized guidelines for action.
Firstly, Confucianism emphasizes personal moral cultivation.
Confucianism advocates improving one’s morality through self-reflection and learning. Individuals should scrutinize their words and deeds and constantly reflect and improve their moral character. Meanwhile, individuals should also study classical culture and the wisdom of the sages to draw moral essences and incorporate these essences into their life practices.
At the same time, Confucianism emphasizes “five cardinal relationships” (between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, brothers and friends) and regards the family as the basic unit of human society.
In the family, people should follow the path of filial piety and fraternal duty, namely, showing respect for parents and fraternity and love for siblings. In this way, family members can establish a relationship of mutual love and respect among themselves, promoting family harmony and enhancing the stability of society.
Finally, Confucianism emphasizes the rule of the state by Li and the rule of the state by Ren.
The Li provide specific norms and frameworks for benevolent governance so that the implementation of benevolent governance has specific operational methods and standards. Benevolent government, in turn, ensures Li accord with the human nature and the needs of society.
The implementation of benevolent government through the norms of Li is conducive to the establishment of an orderly and standardized society, which in turn maintains the long-term stability of the country.
The History of Confucianism
The development of Confucianism has been a journey of constant pioneering, innovation, and change.
From the contention of the Hundred Schools during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods and the dominance of Confucianism after the unification of the Qin and Han dynasties to the flourishing and transformation of Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties, Confucianism has always kept pace with the times, adapting to and leading the development of the times.
| Confucianism in the Pre-Qin Dynasty | Representative figures | Confucius, Mencius (孟子), and Xunzi (荀子) |
| Main points | In the pre-Qin period, Confucius founded Confucianism and put forward the core ideas of Ren, Yi, Li, Zhi and Xin. Mencius, and Xunzi have proposed ideas such as “benevolent government” and “Nature and the Universe” (天道自然). | |
| Confucianism in the Han and Tang dynasties | Representative figures | Dong Zhongshu (董仲舒), Wang Chong (王充), Han Yu (韩愈), Li Ao (李翱), Liu Yuxi (刘禹锡), Liu Zongyuan (柳宗元) |
| Main points | Confucianism in the Han dynasty expanded on pre-Qin Confucianism. Dong Zhongshu transformed Confucianism by ‘theologizing’ it, and he proposed the ‘Theory of Sensation Between Heaven and Human’ (天人感应论), and advocated the ‘Divine Right of Kings’ (君权神授). Confucianism in the Tang dynasty opposed Buddhism and Taoism and advocated a revision of the Confucian theories of the previous generations. | |
| Confucianism in the Song Dynasty | Representative figures | Shao Yong (邵雍), Zhou Dunyi (周敦颐), Zhang Zai (张载), Cheng Hao (程颢), Cheng Yi (程颐), Zhu Xi (朱熹), Lu Jiuyuan (陆九渊), Chen Liang (陈亮) |
| Main points | Confucianism in the Song dynasty was dominated by Neo-Confucianism and Lu Jiuyuan’s Universal Mind (心学). Neo-Confucianism advocates the idea of “obtaining knowledge by investigation of things” (格物致知). The Philosophy of Universal Mind advocates the idea that “the mind is the principle”. | |
| Confucianism in the Ming Dynasty | Representative figures | Chen Xianzhang (陈献章), Zhan Ruoshui (湛若水), Luo Qinshun (罗钦顺), Wang Yangming (王阳明), Wang Tingxiang (王廷相), Wang Geng (王艮), Wang Ji (王畿), Li Zhi (李贽), Liu Zongzhou (刘宗周) |
| Main points | During the Ming Dynasty, The Philosophy of Mind was unique, and Wang Yangming advocated “unity of knowledge and action” (知行合一). | |
| Confucianism in the Qing dynasty | Representative figures | Huang Zongxi (黄宗羲), Fang Yizhi (方以智), Gu Yanwu (顾炎武), Wang Fuzhi (王夫之), Yan Yuan (颜元), Dai Zhen (戴震), Gong Zizhen (龚自珍), Wei Yuan (魏源) |
| Main points | In Chinese history, Confucianism in the Qing Dynasty was in a transition stage. This period’s Confucianism emphasized Pragmatism (经世致用) and the dynamics of consciousness. | |
| Modern Confucianism | Representative figures | Yan Fu (严复), Kang Youwei (康有为), Tan Sitong (谭嗣同), Zhang Taiyan (章太炎), Liang Qichao (梁启超), Wang Guowei (王国维) |
| Main points | Confucianism in this period has several distinctive features: scientization, exoticization, and the combination of East and West. | |
| Contemporary Confucianism | Representative figures | Ma Yifu (马一浮), Xiong Shili (熊十力), Qian Mu (钱穆), Fang Dongmei (方东美), Xu Fuguan (徐复观), Tang Junyi (唐君毅), Mou Zongsan (牟宗三), Luo Guang (罗光) |
| Main points | Some scholars advocate the revival of traditional Confucianism, which is known as contemporary Confucianism. This idea is characterized by the preservation of Confucianism, the rational analysis of Chinese culture, and the philosophizing of Confucianism. |
Representative books of Confucianism
As a treasure of Chinese civilization, Confucianism has not only produced many outstanding scholars but has also left various canonical documents. These texts detail the core ideas of Confucianism and provide valuable information for the study of future generations.
However, it is worth mentioning that although there are different representative figures of Confucianism in all periods, Confucian writings were mainly finished in the Spring and Autumn, Warring States, and Qin-Han periods. Confucian scholars in later generations tended to base their study and practices on Confucian representatives of this period.
| Name | Chinese | Style | Descriptions |
|---|---|---|---|
| The Book of Songs | 《诗经》 | Classics | A collection of poems from the beginning of the Western Zhou Dynasty to the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period |
| The Book of Documents | 《尚书》 | Classics | A collection of ancient historical documents, mainly composed of emperors’ messages and records of conversations between the emperors and their subordinates. |
| Rites of the Zhou | 《周礼》 | Classics | Focused on the official system of the Zhou royal family and the systems of various countries in the Warring States period |
| The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial | 《仪礼》 | Classics | Recording various rituals of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods |
| The Book of Changes | 《周易》 | Classics | the fortune book during the Yin (殷) and Shang dynasties |
| The Spring and Autumn Annals | 《春秋》 | Biography | Recording the social conditions of the Spring and Autumn period |
| The Commentary of Gongyang | 《春秋公羊传》 | Biography | Explaining The Spring and Autumn Annals in a question-and-answer format |
| The Guliang Zhuan | 《春秋谷梁传》 | Biography | Annotating The Spring and Autumn Annals through the style of discourses and dialogues; An important document for the study of the evolution of Confucianism from the Warring States period to the Han Dynasty period |
| The Analects of Confucius | 《论语》 | Biography | A collection of quotations from Confucius and his disciples |
| The Book of Filial Piety | 《孝经》 | Biography | Monographs on feudal filial piety |
| The Words of Mencius | 《孟子》 | Biography | Recording Mencius’s words, thoughts, and deeds |
| The Book of Rites | 《礼记》 | Biography | Recording various rituals before the Qin and Han dynasties |
| Erya | 《尔雅》 | Lexicographical book | Explaining the meaning of the words, names, and objects Scholars often interpret classic works based on this book. |
Impacts of Confucianism
As the core of ancient Chinese culture, Confucianism has become a cornerstone in shaping the values and codes of conduct of Chinese society and has profoundly affected Chinese culture. Cultural and economic exchanges between China and other countries have also promoted Confucianism worldwide.
Firstly, Confucianism has far-reaching effects on regions such as East Asia, especially Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Geographical proximity to China and the potent influence of Confucianism have not just left a mark on these countries but have fundamentally transformed their culture and social structure. Confucianism’s imprint on these countries’ social order, family ethics, and education has shaped their unique cultural and social characteristics.
Secondly, Confucianism has influenced the Western world.
From the 17th century, Confucian culture attracted the attention of some Western scholars. They translated and studied the Confucian classics and introduced them to Western academia. Some values of Confucianism, such as benevolence, propriety, loyalty, and family ethics, have significantly affected Western philosophy, ethics, and social science.
In conclusion, spreading Confucianism is a transmission of culture and a dialogue and exchange between civilizations. It helps people worldwide better understand Chinese culture and promotes cultural diversity. At the same time, current people can also learn from Confucianism to solve global moral and social problems.
Deficiencies of Confucianism
Confucianism, an essential component of the Chinese culture, has some shortcomings.
Firstly, it emphasizes hierarchy, such as “Three Principles” (the ruler is the master of his subjects, the father is the master of his sons, and the husband is the master of his wives). This feudal hierarchical system strictly differentiates people’s status and identity, dividing them into various classes and ranks and leading to social inequality.
This Confucian theory solidified people’s identity and status and assigned them different social positions from birth. It restricted individual development and social progress and resulted in social injustice and oppression.
Secondly, some political concepts advocated by Confucianism are old-fashioned and stereotypical, turning the subjects into slaves of the monarch. For example, “If a subject is disloyal, he shall die; if he speaks improperly, he shall die” eventually developed into “If the ruler wants the subject to die, the subject must die.”
This philosophy also stifled any form of critical spirit, making it impossible for subjects to evaluate or object to the monarch’s decisions. They could only passively accept the monarch’s rules without exercising their initiatives. This political philosophy was unequal and hindered social development.
Finally, Confucianism needs to pay more attention to the study of natural science.
Historically, Confucianism has long been less concerned with natural science than Western philosophy. Although some people had already pointed out this flaw in Confucianism during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, it should be taken more seriously.
Confucianism regarded scientific inventions as absurd chicanery, leading to a lack of scientific spirit in ancient Chinese society and China’s lagging far behind Western countries such as the United States in modern times.
The Four Great Inventions of ancient China demonstrate the exploration spirit and the development of natural science at that time. However, even if these four inventions greatly advanced the Western civilization, they did not have the same impact on China.
Confucianism, a dominant school of thought in Chinese history, has neglected the study of natural science. Only in the late nineteenth century did some Chinese thinkers begin to draw on modern science achievements in the West.
These shortcomings remind us that no culture or ideology is perfect, so constant reflection and improvement are needed. Regardless of these limitations, with a history of more than 2,500 years, Confucianism’s positive effects far outweigh its negative ones.