A Complete Guide to
Neo-Confucianism
What is Neo-Confucianism? What are its core elements as a vital manifestation of Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties? What were its positive meanings for society at that time?
Neo-Confucianism is a distinctive trend of thought in ancient China, explicitly referring to Confucianism from the Song Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty. As a crucial philosophical trend, it inherited the traditional wisdom of Confucius and Mencius in pre-Qin Confucianism and made in-depth expansion and innovation.
Neo-Confucian scholars not only deeply analyzed the nature of man and explored the relationship between man’s moral cultivation and the universe of heaven and earth but also put forward many unique philosophical views, thus laying a solid foundation for the development of thoughts in later generations.
The Formation of Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism was conceived in the Sui and Tang Dynasties and officially established during the Qingli years of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (宋仁宗). Throughout this journey, various factors intertwined to fuel its birth and growth.
At first, during the Sui and Tang dynasties, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism were separated and fought against each other, but they gradually showed a trend of integration. Confucianism remained the core of the mainstream ideology at that time. After the middle of the Tang Dynasty, the Tang Confucian scholars, represented by Han Yu (韩愈) and Li Ao (李翱), reorganized the system of Confucianism and introduced some new concepts.
All this provided a new source of motivation for the development of Song and Ming Confucianism.
Second, from the end of the Han Dynasty to the end of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties, social unrest and warlordism occurred, and Buddhism and Taoism were on the rise, impairing the ruling order based on Confucianism. The Confucianists of the Song dynasty attempted to restore social order and moral standards by reviving Confucianism.
Thirdly, during the period of Wu Zetian (武则天) in the Tang Dynasty, the imperial examination system was strengthened, breaking the rule of the aristocratic and high-class scholar clans (a feudal aristocratic privileged group formed during the Wei and Jin Dynasties and linked by clan ties) and facilitating the rise of the lower-class scholar clans and peasant and agricultural classes, which provided the social foundation for the development of the Neo-Confucianism.
Fourth, in the early Song dynasty, there were limited social resources because of the proliferating population regardless of the economic recovery. As a result, suppressing personal desires was advocated, which coincided with Confucianism’s emphasis on the suppression of selfish desires.
Finally, Confucian classics served as a vital criterion for selecting officials in the Song Dynasty. Thus, the scholar-bureaucrat class had to thoroughly study Confucian classics, creating a culture centering on Confucianism and moral cultivation.
In summary, Neo-Confucianism emerged from a combination of factors, including political upheavals, economic pressures, cultural challenges, the influence of the imperial examination system, and changes in social classes.
Against this background, Neo-Confucianism was born and became an important part of Confucianism.
The Content and Development of Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism, also known as “Daoxue” (道学, the Study of the Way) or “Yili Zhixue” (义理之学, the Study of Principle and Meaning), is the Chinese study of principles, with its core concept being “Li” (principle).
Neo-Confucianism was not a pure and simple continuation of Confucianism but a new form of Confucianism after absorbing elements of Buddhism and Taoism.
It is a new Confucian system of thought based on the traditional theories of Confucianism while actively absorbing the theoretical ideas of Buddhism and Taoism. It was the ruling ideology of late feudal China.
Furthermore, the Neo-Confucianism can be divided into a narrow sense and a broad sense. In the narrow sense, “Lixue” (the Study of Principle) refers only to Cheng-Zhu School (程朱理学; Chéng Zhū Lǐxué). The broad sense of “Lixue” is the dominant Confucian philosophical thought system formed since the Song dynasty.
During its historical development, Neo-Confucianism has produced numerous schools of thought. Although their theoretical propositions differ, they regard Li (principle) as the origin of all things in the universe and use it as the basis for concretization expansion and development.
It is worth mentioning that as two important schools of Neo-Confucianism, Cheng-Zhu School and Lu-Wang School (陆王心学; School of the Heart) not only had a great influence on the society of their time but also left a deep imprint on the thinking of later generations.
The following is a systematic compendium of Neo-Confucianism’s content and development process.
| Dynasty | Character | Contents |
|---|---|---|
the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127) | Hu Yuan (Chinese: 胡媛), Sun Fu (孙复), Shi Jie (石介) | As forerunners of the Neo-Confucianism, they studied the Confucian classics and focused on their practicality. |
| Zhou Dunyi (周敦颐) | He explained the development laws of nature and human society in terms of Taiji (supreme polarity) and Wuji (limitless potential), the yin and yang[1], and the wu xing[2], and established a complete view of the universe for Neo-Confucianism. | |
| Zhang Zai ( 张载) | Monism of Qi(气): Qi is the origin of all things in heaven and earth, and the appearance, development, and change of all things and phenomena are formed by the movement and change of qi. | |
| Shao Yong (邵雍) | He believed that Taiji is the origin of the universe and focused on the position and role of human subjective consciousness and moral cultivation. | |
| Cheng Hao (程颢), Cheng Yi (程颐) | They elevated “Li” (理, principle) to the highest category of philosophy, considering it to be the law of nature and the moral code of human society. | |
the Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279) | Zhu Xi (朱熹) | He developed the theory of Li and Qi (气, vitality or dynamic force) and proposed that “preserve the Heavenly Principle and eliminate human desires.” |
| Lu Jiuyuan (陆九渊) | He founded the “School of the Universal Mind,” stating that “The universe is my mind, and my mind is the universe.” | |
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) | Chen Xianzhang (陈献章) | He advocated cultivating the heart and eliminating selfish desires to bring the mind to peace, act righteously, and attain the state of a sage. |
| Wang Yangming (王阳明) | He was the founder of Yangmingism (阳明心学, also called School of the Heart). He advocated that there is no reason, no object, and no matter outside the heart. In other words, he believed that the origin and laws of the world exist in the human heart, not in the external and objective world. He also stressed, “The unity of inner knowledge and action” (知行合一). He believed that one’s thoughts and actions should be consistent and that what one knows should be done and what one does should be known. | |
| Wang Ji (王畿) | Wang Longxi interpreted Wang Yangming’s summarization of his own teachings into the “Four Sentences” into his own form, the “Four Nothings” (四無), which stated that “If we realize that the mind is the mind which is neither good nor evil, that intention is intention which is neither good nor evil, that knowledge is knowledge which is neither good nor evil, and that things are things which are neither good nor evil, then the mindless mind is concealed in the secret, the intentionless intention responds perfectly, knowledgeless knowledge is embodied in quiescence, and thingless things function spiritually. |
Sacred Texts of Neo-Confucianism
The Confucian classics are rich and varied, including the Four Books and the Five Classics and other books such as The Book of Filial Piety and the Erya. Neo-Confucianism was a very important part of Confucianism, and the canonical works by Neo-Confucian scholars were also the inheritance and development of the classical Confucian canonical works of the previous generation.
These books carry Confucianism’s fundamental spirit and values in many ways, emphasizing moral norms such as benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith, exploring heaven, earth, and man, and pursuing the personality of a Junzi.
Moreover, compared with the previous generation’s classic works, the Neo-Confucianism books have their unique characteristics.
First, these books also emphasize the exegesis and explication of the classics, giving them new meaning and value for the times through reinterpretation.
At the same time, these books are profound and systematic in their ideological content.
They do not merely explore a particular aspect of philosophical issues but construct a complete philosophical system. For example, Zhengmeng (正蒙, Rectifying Ignorance) elaborates on Zhang Zai’s Qi-based Theory, analyzing it in depth from various aspects, ranging from cosmology to human nature theory to moral cultivation. The philosophical ideas presented in these books have deep theoretical roots and reflect a profound insight into the real world.
Second, these books are unique and precise in their presentation.
Neo-Confucians often use sophisticated language and unique expressions to express profound philosophical ideas. They are skilled at using metaphor, symbolism, and other rhetorical devices to make philosophical ideas more vivid and imaginative. At the same time, they pay attention to the precision of language and strive to express the meaning of each philosophical concept accurately.
The following are some famous Neo-Confucians of the Song and Ming dynasties and their writings.
| Books | Chinese Name | Author | Contents |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sishu Zhangju Jizhu | 《四书章句集注》 | Zhu Xi (朱熹) | The book is Zhu Xi’s commentary on The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, The Analects of Confucius, and Mencius (the Four Books). |
| Zhuzi yule (A Collection of Conversations of Master Zhu) | 《朱子语类》 | Zhu Xi and his Disciples | This book is a categorized compilation of quotations from the dialogues between Zhu Xi and his disciples. |
| Taiji Tu Shuo (Explanations of the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate or Diagram Explaining the Supreme Ultimate) | 《太极图说》 | Zhou Dunyi (周敦颐) | The book focuses on the Taijitu (太极图) and delves into the generative evolutionary theory of the universe and life. |
| Zhengmeng (Rectifying Ignorance) | 《正蒙》 | Zhang Zai (张载) | It is a philosophical work based on “Monism of Qi(气)” and covers various aspects of human nature, epistemology, and methodology. |
| Lu Jiuyuan Collection | 《陆九渊集》 | Lu Jiuyuan (陆九渊) | The book is a compilation of Lu Jiuyuan’s quotations, letters, and poems. |
| Huangji Jingshi (Book of Supreme World Ordering Principles) | 《皇极经世》 | Shao Yong (邵雍) | The book records Shao Yong’s deduction of the universe’s origin, natural evolution, and social and historical change based on The Book of Changes. |
In conclusion, these Neo-Confucian sacred books are characterized by profound ideological connotations, unique modes of expression, and far-reaching influence. They are a precious heritage of ancient Chinese philosophy and an essential source for understanding and studying Song and Ming philosophy today.
Influence of Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism has far-reaching and complex as well as positive and negative effects.
Positive influence:
First, Neo-Confucianism strengthened Confucianism’s influence. It studied the Confucian classics in depth and emphasized the importance of the Four Books and Five Classics and the inheritance of Confucian traditions to restore and rebuild them.
At the same time, the theories put forward by Confucian scholars, such as “Study Things to Acquire Knowledge” and “The Unity of Knowing and Doing”, have injected new vitality into Confucianism, bringing widespread application of Neo-Confucianism in China’s political and cultural sphere.
Second, Neo-Confucianism promoted the development of education. Their advocacy of reading and studying extensively increased the significance of education at that time.
In addition, many vital colleges and academies emerged in the Song Dynasty, providing important venues and opportunities for academic research and education.
Negative effects:
On the other hand, Neo-Confucianism has some adverse effects.
Firstly, the strict hierarchical concept of respect and inferiority advocated by Neo-Confucianism emphasizes inequality among people and ignores their individuality and diversity.
Particularly noteworthy is the deep-rooted ideology of male superiority over women in the treatment of women, which, to some extent, deprives women of their freedom.
Secondly, Neo-Confucianism lacked high openness and inclusiveness towards the natural sciences.
The Confucian scholars were too preoccupied with interpreting Confucian classics. They lacked in-depth thinking and practical application of real-world problems, thus neglecting the development of natural sciences and hindering the progress of Chinese science and technology.
Third, Neo-Confucianism promoted “rituals and moral cultivation” and neglected the law.
The overemphasis on rituals and moral cultivation has contributed to the spread of bureaucracy, the pursuit of career paths, and the worship of prestige and worldly customs in society, which was especially prominent in the Ming Dynasty.
Neo-Confucianism has occupied an essential position in China’s intellectual and cultural development. It contributed significantly to Confucianism’s continuation and growth, but it also hindered and negatively affected the progress of science and society to a certain extent.
- Yin and Yang: a core concept in Chinese philosophy; complementary and opposing forces interacting in a dynamic system where the whole is greater than parts, while the parts are vital for the cohesion of the whole, such as fire and water, expanding and contracting. ↩︎
- Wu xing: “五行”, the five phases or agents in Chinese philosophy, namely, Metal (金), Wood (木), Water (水), Fire (火), and Earth (土). ↩︎